The Pay Model Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Pay Model - Essay Example Compare your ideas with someone with more experience, someone from another country, someone from another field of study. The Compensation is something that is paid to cover the opportunity cost. For example, if an employee makes commitment to work for the organization for the next five years it means he is ready to sacrifice his five years for one organization. These five years could be spent somewhere else in less time consuming and less hectic job. Therefore, the company must pay him the reasonable amount that can cover his cost of losing other jobs. The Most convincing definition from an employee’s perspective is the return. The return to employee covers both the entitlement, as well as, reward. The person who is more experienced has different perceptions regarding the definition of compensation. The compensation may be defined as risk of loss, whereas for a fresh employee the appetite for risk is high (Coppleman, 2004). Most of the developed countries may not need to think about the basic needs to cover in the compensation package but in developing countries, employee’s perception for the compensation may be totally different; the fulfillment of the basic needs may also be incorporated in the compensation package (Coppleman, 2004). Different fields require different level of compensation packages from the companies. For example, if the job requires frequent travelling, so the compensation may cover traveling, as well as, accommodation expenses, whereas if the job is totally desk based the compensation may be salary along with other perks (Coppleman, 2004). 3. What is the "network of returns" that your school offers your instructor? What returns do you believe make a difference in teaching effectiveness? What "returns" would you change or add to increase the teaching effectiveness? Network of returns refers to the fact that all bonuses, allowances and salary

Critical analysis of clinical management plan (CMP) Essay

Critical analysis of clinical management plan (CMP) - Essay Example Typically, following the discussion of the clinical management plan, it is expected that either the independent or supplementary prescriber can write a copy of a plan prior to the beginning of a supplementary process. Additionally, Tomar (2008, 274) accentuates that a supplementary prescriber should take the responsibility of assessing and overseeing the treatment plan in line with the information provided on the clinical management plan; this include prescribing a drug among the drugs that are stated in the clinical management plan. This report is set to analyze critically a clinical management plan with respect to a patient that was initially prescribed the intravenous caomoxiclav after experiencing a dog’s bite; this was followed by a prescription of an oral coamoxicla after the supplementary prescriber found out that the condition had improved. A patient was bitten by a dog, and sustained minor injuries. However, after three days, the patient presented a sustained a punctured wound on the right forearm for a minor injury to the Accident and Emergency department. The wound was associated with a swelling, redness and pain. A diagnosis of the condition revealed that the patient was infected with cellulitis (Allan, Atkinson and Agada, 2013, p.1159). Although a dog bite is normally treated with oral coamoxiclav, the delay in presentation to a minor injury led the independent prescriber to prescribe an intravenous coamoxiclav antibiotic, as well as put lined mark on the redness with a recommendation to return for a review the following day (Asherson, 2011). However, the condition of the patient improved given that the redness and swelling reduced notably; the patient was directed to switch from the intravenous coamoxiclav antibiotic to an oral antibiotic. The patient is a female and office clerk of 30 years. Historically, the pa tient described that he is

The Strict Internet Censorship Of China

The Strict Internet Censorship Of China Undoubtedly, the Internet has played an active role in the average Chinese life (Internet Content Control in China, p.3) The Internet is expected to enable Chinese to have more chances to access wide-ranging information sources, which are essential for democracy. As a main way of accessing to information, search engine has played a crucial role in the process of building public sphere in china. According to the survey, in the first half-year of 2010, the utilization rate of search engine among all net citizens has increased by 3%, to 76.3%; the number of users for search engine has reached 320 million and. Since 2009, search engine had entered into a period of rapid development of new cycle. Internet users have applied search engine more frequently and turned to Internet and search engine as to the acquisition of all information in life more (CINIC, 2010). Google is the largest search engine company that supplies global information services in the world. In 2006, Google began to operate google.cn for Chinese public. As a global available search engine, Google can provide more sources outside of china to Chinese. In 2005, 32.9% users would use Google to search information in Beijing of china (CINIC, 2005 , P.11). It is generally agreed that Internet contribute to fostering a virtual space of communication by offering new forms of bonding and solidarity on cyberspace new ways of forging cultural communities in local contexts (Morley, 2000). Specifically, peoples open access to information by using global Internet search engines, such as Google may create a healthier public sphere on cyberspace, which can work as a cultural and social space that should be open, diverse and accessible (Golding Murdock, 1991). To this extent, globally available search engine, such as Google, can contribute to establish public sphere in china. It assumed that Google is playing a positive role to facilitate public sphere in china. However, the situation is contrary. Although Google censored considerably less than the other search engines, it also need to obey the regulation and law of censorship of china. Internet companies all acknowledged filtering out and censoring politically sensitive information due to Chinas restrictive censorship policies. When Google complied with Chinese censorship in order to enter Chinas fast-growing market, it became to the tool of Chinese censorship to control the flow of information. Why google cannot facilitate public sphere in china? In general there are two reasons. First reason is that profit motive makes Google compromise with china. Behind the surface tensions between the Chinese regulatory power and Internet corporations, it can be widely acknowledged that the corporate-Chinese government deal provides considerable financial gains to US technology companies by enabling them to attract Chinese consumers in a lucrative Chinese Internet market with appealing, yet non-controversial material (MDMH, P.411). According to the statistics from survey, china is a considerable large market over world. As a company, Googles main goal is to gain the profit, when face to the economic interest, its responsibility to protect the human rights becomes less important. Googles capability of facilitate public sphere is restricted by the censorship of china. Because of the profit motives, Google have to comply the censorship that is the cost of doing business in china (china dilemma, p.4). For chasing the financial benefit, Googles compromise of Chinese censorship undermine its ability of contribute to form public sphere in china. This new alliance between the two different power groups is based on both state and corporate censorship measures. While the global dissemination of Internet communication operates under fundamental corporate guidelines, such as the free market principle along with the freedom of expression ideology, global Internet information flow is also mediated by local censorship and surveillance policies and political particulars within a social context (MDMH, P.411). Strict censorship of china Once google accepted to censor the information that means googles information are under harsh control. China has a very restrict system of censorship on Internet, which curb google to contribute information to establish the public sphere in china. Chinese government control the flow of information on interentet not only limit network services but also monitor traffic and users (Great leap or long march, p.705). Chine Internet censorship can be divided into two parts, one is regulation and law, and another one is the technologic control. Law and regulation was considered as the internal control of Internet in china. It is impossible to block the use Internet, as a result, Chinese government issued the law and regulation to make the access of information were under the officially control. Chinese communist party (CCP) makes the surveillance on the Internet legal by publishing related regulations and laws. Chinese government published a directive to regulate the use of the Internet in 1996(Great leap or long march, p.705). In 1997, Internet control law was added into Chinese Criminal Law. Since 1995, when commercial Internet accounts were began permitting in china, more and more laws issued to control content of Internet. For instance, Decision of the Standing Committee of the National Peoples Congress on Maintaining Internet Security (2000); Measures for Managing Internet Information Services (2000); Provisional Rules for the Administration of the Operation of News Publication Services by Web Sites (2000); Rules for the Administration of Internet Bulletin Board System Services (2000); Rules for the Administration of Computer Internet Bulletin Board System Services in the Colleges (2001); Interim Provisions on the Administration of Internet Publication (2002)50. Other rules are aimed at Internet cafà ©, state secrecy, network security, and encryption, but they also indirectly have a strong impact on Internet content regulation. Even some rules for infrastructure or connections include provisions on content governance (Internet content control in china, p.18). According to the law and regulation in 2000, the forbidden of sensitive content and the restrictions on the distribution of news aim to control the spread the information that be critical to Chinese government. Moreover, Internet service providers (ISPs) and Internet content providers (ICPs) are required to storage users data to monitor whether user post or access to information that are unapproved by Chinese government (Internet in china). For Internet company, they must get ICP licence that allowed it operate business in china. For example, google has to comply the rules on licences that apply a range of permits. According to that, google are imposed to do self-censorship for filtering keywords that unapproved by CCP. If google do not obey the rules, Chinese government can cancel the licences to prohibit googles right to engage business even accuse google. To put the regulation and law into practice, Chinese government also censor the information by using technical means. Millions of dollars have invested to develop the information technology that distributes the system to limit the accessibility of online resources in china (The china Dilemma, p.3). Chinese government is also implementing its own e-government project which is called Government Online Project(E-government in china, p.3). Internet content filtering in china has been considered as the most complex and sophisticated around the world. Chinese government planed the Golden Shield project in 1998 and started that plan in 2003. It claimed that Golden Shied project employ advanced information technology to safeguard the security of online information and crime combating capacity, which aim to develop efficient police work (Golden shield project). It estimated that Golden Shied project had spent 70 million dollars on research to date, and that the total spending would likely be even more than that. One of the most important parts of this project is the Great firewall of china. The main function of the Great firewall is to block the accessing of forbidden materials on sites outside China. The Great firewall employ newer domain name server IP address filtering, URL keyword filtering, Web Server IP address filtering, HTML Response Keyword filtering, and DNS redirection to achieve the goal of blocking undesirable information. One hand, these technologies including the hardware and software are implemented to prevent police work from attack. On the other hand, the most important role of these technologies is to monitor and filter the flow of information. It is argued that google should reject the self-censorship in china. However, under dual pressure of stringent law and advanced technological control, google faces the dilemma in china. There only two choices for google, one is to do self- censorship, another is to be filtered by Great firewall in china. No matter google chose which side, Chinese government will enforce google to filter the keywords that crucial to public debate and democracy. David Drummond, Googles senior vice president, said that if google do not filter keywords, Chinese government could block even more sites which still disappointed Chinese public. (Google rules, p. 41) This is one of the reasons Google, in 2006, started Google.cn. Among other characteristics, Google.cn was more quickly accessed than Google.com because it filtered out content in- side China, bypassing the Great Firewall. For example, a search for Tiananmen Square on Go- ogle.com results in pictures of the man standing in front of the tank, as well as other websites related to 1989. Google.cn, in contrast, shows tourist sites re- lated to the Square and pleasant looking holiday images. No mention is made of the events of 1989.7 Moreover, if a search for images of the Dalai Lama is made on Google.cn, of the 161 images returned only one is of the Tibetan Buddhist. The same search on Google.com results in 2,030 found images.8 If one lived in China it might be forgiven for thinking many of these historical events and persons never existed (Just doing business or doing just business, p.221). The whole system of censorship on Internet works effectively. Why the Internet can be controlled in china? There are two main reasons behind the phenomena. Political aspect makes the role of Internet in china different from other countries. In general, most of keywords censored are related to politics in china and CCP have opened the diffusion of non-political information. Take the BBC sites as a instance, it can be accessed expect political news. As is know to all, china is not a democratic country that has a unique political environment. CCP has absolute authority to affect the public sphere. Since Republic of China has been established in 1949, CCP have made effort to strength the control of ideology by employing sophisticated censorship. The mainly information from Chinese media are used for propaganda. Internet, especially the searching engine used to be the tool to monitor the public opinion to reinforce CCPs one-party regime. In 1990s, when internet has been introduced in china, it has provided a forum of public debate and democracy for Chinese. Then CCP has relaised the important role of internet and apply law and technology to filter the keyword which risk the authority. As Kellner (1999) argues, Internet can be used as a tool for state power to increase the control or can be used as a tool to establish public sphere. According to that, CCP form authoritarian censorship on interenet to enforce it only to server for Government. In addition, CCP control the flow of information outside china because the fear of against Chinese communist government from west countries. For example, Wei Wu (great leap) claimed that since the end of cold war, Chinese government still worried about those anti-chinese communist government reporters from west might offer information on internet to against CCP. While the internet is global available, Chinese can access some information related to democracy and other west ideology. CCP consider that west ideology can affect the public opinion to endanger one-party regime. To safeguard the surveillance, CCP establish the great firewall to block the sites related to those west ideology about democracy and freedom of speech. Besides the political aspect, china has a lack of fundamental social environment of freedom of speech. Most of Chinese people tend have no sense of freedom of speech. Although scholars like Guobin Yang (the power of the internet in china) argued that more and more online debate and movements about democracy have took place online since 1990, china is lack of the basic to form public sphere on Internet. To begin with, Chinese people educated by Marxist which do not emphasise the importance of freedom of speech. Since 1949, Marxist which is the mainstream ideology in china is deferent from west ideology about democracy. To this extent, Chinese people do not have deep understan of democracy and freedom of speech, which are negative to establish the public sphere. Furthermore, Chinese citizen trend to have more concerns about economy than politicos. Generally speaking, china is a developing country with large population. A number of people in china focus on the developing of economy to improve their level of life condition rather than consider the public sphere. For some Chinese people who are suffering from poverty, the freedom of speech even is a luxury right (Internet content contrl). Future of Google and china Because of hack attack, Google.cn was shut down on 12 January 2010 and visitors are now being redirected to Google.com.hk (google rules). It is believed that Google.com.hk is an appropriate way to solve the problem between china and Google (Google offical blog). Google.com.hk is legal to uncensored and provide more information, yet it would be filtered by Great firewall even it has the risk to be prohibited in mainland of china. As a result, it is difficult to judge that whether google.com.hk can continue to supply information to facilitate public sphere in china. Googles ability to contribute public sphere of china still depends on the censorship of china. David Drummond argued that governments in the West should put pressure on Chinese government to improve the internet enviroment in china(Google rules, p. 35). U.S. government and the European Union have not complained or strongly against Chinas filtering of the Internet. The U.S. Congress has not passed its own laws or resolutions to address the issue of censorship in China. It continues to support business with China (Google china). Nevertheless, Chinese government is under pressure recently and attempting to establish more open and transparent media system. One significant example is the filtering during the 2008 Olympic Games. In 2001, Chinese government promised that there would be no restrictions on journalists in reporting on the Olympic Games (Access controlled, p.468). Although some websites were still blocked, websites containing politically sensitive content were accessible during 2008 Olympic Games. Moreover, most international social media websites were accessible, such as Blogspot, Facebook, and Twitter. Another example is happened in 2010 shanghai expo in china. Computer users can access to most of websites that may blocked before. These two examples indicates that Chinese government has realised that their responsibility to create more open public sphere for Chinese and international public. The open of internet environment just need to be taking gradually in china. Conclusion This emerging public sphere on the Web tends to enable more democratic sharing of information and lead to a new political awareness based on informed civic engagement (Fischer, 2000). However, average citizens are not in a good position relative to both global corporate forces and influential government regulatory regimes in terms of making rules and policies to manage the global flow of cyber- communication. Given that technology brings change, both positive and negative, in relation to social interactions and power dynamics, it should be recognized that technology also involves regulation or restriction by the state or other social forces because the information technology, i.e., the Internet, is not separated from the social and political context in which it is created and operated (Marshall, 2003; Fischer, 2000). The question is no longer how the Internet will affect china; it is how china will affect the Internet (Who controls the internet, p.104).

Partial Birth Abortion is Murder Essay -- Argument Argumentative Persu

Partial Birth Abortion is Murder Partial birth abortion is a controversial method of abortion late in a woman’s pregnancy in which the baby is aborted by a craniotomy. Two organizations are commonly affiliated with abortion: Pro-choice supports abortion saying that what is in a woman’s body is her â€Å"property†, while Pro-life believes it is murder of innocent babies. Partial birth abortion is murder of innocent children and an abomination to basic human rights and values. Thesis Statement: Partial birth abortion is murder of innocent babies and an abomination to basic human rights and values. I. The differing sides on Intact D&X are distinctly opposite A. Pro-choice supports abortions 1. Done 650 times a year and only when the mother’s life is endangered or the child is deformed 2. Says the public is mistaken in its knowledge of Intact Dilation and Extraction B. Pro-life doesn’t support abortions of any kind 1. Backed by medical experts it is claimed that 80% of partial birth abortions are purely elective 2. Believes the baby is a living human being and deserves the rights of a human II. There are benefits and harmful consequences to P.B.A. A. Many abortionists claim that the benefits far out way the consequences 1. It is safer, quicker, and easier 2. Intact D&X is less traumatic to the mother B. There are also many harmful effects 1. Risk of uterine and breast cancer is increased 2. Rates of depression also increase III. The issue of partial birth abortion has come into our courtrooms A. Congress made its first attempt to ban P.B.A in 1996 1.Brenda Shafer R.N. testified to what she saw in abortion clinic 2. Congress passed the ban, but President Clinton vetoed the bill B. The second attempt was made in 1997 1. Passed Congress again 2. President Clinton vetoed the bill Imagine being in excruciating pain from a gaping hole in the back of your neck. Then you hear a slight â€Å"whirr† before your brains are sucked out through a tiny tube. Sadly this happens to many babies each day because they are unwanted, inconvenient, or imperfect. The abortionist first delivers the baby breech style except for the head, scissors are then jammed into the head at the base of the skull, and the brains sucked out, the skull then collapses. This procedure is commonly known as partial birth abortion or Intact Dilation and E... ...ference of a couple weeks, and even just a few days separates the abortionist from a murderer, and the procedure from Infanticide. We need to take strong action against not only partial birth abortion, but also abortions of any kind by writing our representatives and senators. References Information Page on Abortion. Retrieved October 17, 2000 from the World Wide Web: http://web.tusco.net/newone/abortion2.htm Partial Birth Abortion (1996). Retrieved October 17, 2000 from the World Wide Web: http://www.jeremiahproject.com/prophecy/partbirthabort.html Shafer, B. P. (1996, March 21). Hearing on the Partial Birth Abortion Ban Act (HR 1833). Retrieved October 23, 2000 from the World Wide Web: http://www.priestsforlife.org/testimony.html Sprang and Neerhof (1998, August 26). Rationale for Banning Abortions Late in Pregnancy. American Medical Association 280 744-747. Retrieved October 19, 2000 from the World Wide Web: http://www.partialbirthabortion.org/welcome/what_is.html Sykes, M. (2000). ‘Late Term’ Confusion, ‘Partial Birth’ Lies. Retrieved October 23, 2000 from the World Wide Web:http://prochoice.about.com/newissues/prochoice/library/bllatetermlies.htm

Mozart

Research Oh Susanna: The Wise Women of Mozart In Mozart's operas, as in his life, says Anat Sharon of the Department of Literature, Language and the Arts at the Open University, women rather than men are the ones who come out on top and who win our hearts. Mozart loved and valued women in his personal life and this was reflected in his operas. Through brilliant musical interpretations, his sympathetic, vividly-drawn portraits make audiences love even the most evil of women. Mozart's fascinating, complex female operatic characters are more than simply great musical creations.They also reflect the value Mozart himself placed on the women in his personal life. The women who were influential in Mozart's personal life were his mother Anna Maria; his talented sister Nannerl; his cousin Maria Anna; the woman whom he loved in his youth, Aloysia Weber; and her sister, his beloved wife Constanze. in the dramatic design of the plot. He didn't just receive completed texts; he also placed his per sonal stamp on the characters. One outstanding example of a musical image of a woman that is actually opposed to the text is the Queen of the Night in The Magic Flute.In the story, her character is absolutely a negative one. But Mozart gave her the most beautiful, much-loved arias that make the audience adore her. Thanks to Mozart's music, an image that could easily have been one-sided is in fact something much more complex. † In a recent lecture, Anat Sharon discussed the way that Mozart depicted women on stage rising above every test that men subject them to. Clearly, Mozart related to the women differently from the way he related to men. According to Anat Sharon, â€Å"Mozart's attitude to women can be considered both in terms of their standing in society s a whole and in terms of his personal life. Mozart himself was open-minded and aware of the lack of justice and equality in the feudal society in which he found himself. In the court of the Archbishop of Salzburg, where he lived and worked as a musician, he was considered no more than a kind of servant. â€Å"It is clear that this social order outraged him not only with regard to what he considered his own servitude, but also with regard to women. Therefore, sometimes women in his operas work together to protect their interests against the joint ‘enemy'– men. 1 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart at piano ith muses by Hausleitner (Lebrecht Music and Arts) There is no doubt that the depictions of women in Mozart's operas are deeper, broader and more interesting than the depictions of men. † The question is how much of this slant is due to the librettist and how much to Mozart himself. According to Anat Sharon, â€Å"In the operas Mozart wrote with librettist Lorenzo da Ponte, The Marriage of Figaro, Cosi fan Tutte and Don Giovanni, Mozart was a full partner Anat Sharon explains, â€Å"One of the most idealized feminine characters of all in Mozart's operas is in fact not a noblewoman but a servant. That isSusanna in The Marriage of Figaro. Although traditionally in the commedia dell'arte, servants are more full of life and wit than their employers, Susanna is much more than this. She is an intelligent woman who knows how to read, write and play music. In one scene, Susanna and the Countess sit and together write a letter in which they help catch the Count in his betrayal. The countess dictates and Susanna writes; an example of two women working in harmony against men. The music also reflects the relationship between the two. They sing a soprano duet in which the countess sings and Susanna eplies. The melodies and words are so intermingled that it is virtually impossible to determine which woman is singing which melody. In effect, the two become one. Though this is not explicitly stated in the libretto, the Research this is all in their imaginations, but in All Women Do That (Cosi Fan Tutte), it turns out to be true: when the men are not near them, women are untrue. A ccording to Anat Sharon, â€Å"Even in Cosi Fan Tutte, Mozart's sympathies are on the side of the women. Here, the men set a test of loyalty and the women, who originally hadn't thought of betrayal, are swept away.This also happens to the men, so that in fact, not only do all women ‘do that' but men too. This is apparently human nature. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's opera Le Nozze Di Figaro (Tristram Kenton/Lebrecht Music and Arts) music is depicting a state of equality between the two in Mozart's eyes, even though they belong to two different social levels. â€Å"This is seen even more clearly in Mozart's decision to write an aria for Susanna to sing to seduce the Count, which is actually a serenade. A woman singing a love serenade is unheard of. Susanna is behaving like a man, trying o forge her own path in life. There had been nothing like this in the world of opera, until Mozart, since women were thought at the time to lack the intellect and capacity for rational thought tha t would enable them to manage their lives for themselves. â€Å"Mozart knew this well, because he had a personal example at home. Constanze was very shrewd and had initiative and good business sense, as can be seen by how well she established herself and their children after Mozart died penniless. She guarded his heritage, helped publish his works and was instrumental in the writing of his first biography. In contrast to the women in Mozart's operas who are very aware, men in the operas tend to be rather confused. â€Å"It seems that Mozart didn't value men very highly, especially compared to women, who in his eyes were always more complex and interesting. The male characters in the operas are more one-sided. In The Magic Flute, the only character whom the audience supports wholeheartedly is Papageno, the birdcatcher, who touches our hearts with his simplicity and innocence. † In all the operas, men are convinced that women are fickle betrayers. Generally, â€Å"In spite of the ‘good' ending, there s no doubt that the message is subversive and there is an expression of something like feminism. Although the opera seems to indicate that women are dependent on men for love, in fact Mozart does not suffice with what is written in the libretto. He makes his own contribution to the different characters through musical characterization in his operas. â€Å"Another excellent example is the duet that opens The Marriage of Figaro. Figaro is measuring the size of the room where he and Susanna will live after their marriage while Susanna is trying on her wedding bonnet in front of the mirror.He is pleased with the room; she is less so. They sing a duet composed of two separate tunes – his, staccato in buffo style; hers, lyric and sensitive. The audience is made to wonder how on earth these two will ever live together compatibly if they sing in two completely different musical languages. It is also clear from the music, that she is the one who will s et the tone in their marriage. And that is indeed what happens in the opera – Figaro dances to her tune. † In such a way, in both the operas and in much of Mozart's personal life, do men dance to women's tunes. 1 1

Impact and Benefits of Telecommunication Technology Essay

The emergence of what has been termed the â€Å"information age† is in large part characterized by the presence of real-time communications technologies. Telecommunications technologies are in operation continuously and in virtually all parts of the world. Telecommunications infrastructure is an important facilitator of economic growth and may be important to some level of social development in the world system. Technology does not create new ages, but the people who use the technology have the potential to forge new economic and social conditions (Goleniewski, and Jarrett, 2006). As this new information age emerges from the ashes of the industrial revolution in many areas of the world, new ways of production emerge. Previously non-existent factors are prominent in the new digital age. In general, technology has always been thought of as an important aspect of production and driver of economic growth, but telecommunications technology is sometimes overlooked as an initiator of development. This paper will explore the impact of telecommunications infrastructures and use of the videoconferencing development in Education, Healthcare and Business. Telecommunication Technologies in Organizations Organizations appear to be evolving toward new forms such as virtual organizations, spherical organizations, dynamic network organizations and network organizations (Hinterhuber and Levin, 1994). These forms may be a response to changing environmental conditions. An important characteristic of these forms organizations is distributed collaboration (i.e., work spread across personnel in many locations). The use of information technology in support of these forms is on the rise (Lucas and Baroudi, 1994). With the widespread usage of electronic communication facilities such as: facsimile, electronic mail, teleconferencing and videoconferencing, physical-meeting places are becoming less of a necessity (Goleniewski, and Jarrett, 2006). Additionally, telecommuting, or working from home using computer communications that started in the 1980s has gained momentum with improved support in recent years, and this has also limits the need for physical meeting places. In addition, federal laws (e.g. Clean Air Act of 1990) require businesses employing more than one hundred employees in one location to reduce their employees commute time (Venkatesh and Vitalari, 1992). Information and communication technologies are the tools to run all business activities. The introduction of new technologies is expected to have dynamic ramifications on the methods organizations do business (Remenyi, 2000). This close interaction between information technologies and business operations makes it very difficult to predict the full range of possible benefits impact of the technology implementation. Some aspects of real-time communication systems as computer-mediated communication and videoconferencing may produce tangible benefits that directly improve the performance of groups in the organizations (Goleniewski, and Jarrett, 2006). The direct benefits of real-time communication systems stem from: 1) Reduce work delays and incidents of rework due to fast response from information sources, increased information availability, or reduced ambiguity in existing information; 2) Improve quality of work due to timely and better decision making, clearer instructions, and reduced ambiguity in information; 3) Time savings for contractor and engineer due to decreased need for submission of formal requests for information (RFI’s); 4) Considerable savings in costs related to travel to attend meetings or to resolve issues. On the other hand, telecommunication technologies may produce several intangible improvements in the general work environment. Those benefits are more difficult to measure, however, they may have critical impact on project success (Remenyi, 2000). Teleconferencing Teleconferencing, defined as groups of people communicating electronically between locations separated by distance and/or time, is a technology that has become beneficial for education, healthcare and business. It can be an effective tool for conducting important decision-making or problem solving meetings that might not otherwise be held. It can reduce unproductive travel time, optimize attendance and access to scarce talent, and provide an excellent education and training medium. In other words, teleconferencing can significantly increase productivity and efficiency, can improve management communications at all levels, and can significantly enhance business opportunities when used appropriately (Johansen, 1984, p. 20). Teleconferencing is a broad term encompassing four basic types of communication: audioconferencing, conferencing, computer conferencing and videoconferencing. Each of these areas of concern can and has been integrated within a single teleconferencing system. Videoconferencing To many users, the term teleconferencing means only videoconferencing. Videoconferencing is one form of teleconferencing, and a form of teleconferencing that allows geographically separate conferees to see and hear each other. Videoconferencing can be divided into the following categories: still video, interactive motion video, and one-way broadcast video (Johansen, 1984, pp. 21-3). Videoconferencing images are transmitted over a variety of telecommunications networks including the telephone network, a compressed digital network of transmission capacity and analog networks using terrestrial or satellite systems. Videoconferencing systems can be categorized as: still video, T1 video, fiber optics, analog baseband and/or direct broadcast satellite systems (Wilcox, 2000, pp.7-9). Impact and Benefits of Videoconferencing Since videoconferencing can encompass all forms of teleconferencing, it was selected as the focus for this paper. Videoconferencing is important to the fields of education, business, healthcare because it can offer a cost effective way of imparting the message to consumers who might not otherwise have an opportunity to receive valuable information. Often, because of monetary constraints, educators complain that they are unable to offer courses to all students who want to take them. If the situation is one in which there are only a few subject matter experts, but a large number of willing students, time often inhibits the educator’s ability to reach all interested students (Wilcox, 2000). On the other hand, in many states due to geographic size, all students cannot be reached. Many must travel great distances to obtain an education on a campus environment or forgo the education. There are also situations where, due to accidents or ill health, students are unable to attend classes. Videoconferencing can present a cost effective means to reach a large, possibly remote, audience and impart a simultaneous message (Johansen, 1984). In business, videoconferencing has been used to increase productivity and efficiency, improve management communications, and make better use of scarce talent. Education can be viewed as business-students provide revenue-institutions are competitively seeking to increase revenue by expanding enrollments. Like business, institutions of higher learning need to find innovative ways to increase enrollment, limit administrative costs and improve the quality of their product –education (Wilcox, 2000). Videoconferencing was originally promoted as an alternative to traditional face-to-face meetings, and as a means for an organization to save money in travel expenses for employees, however the benefits have gone far beyond travel savings. Videoconferencing changes the way organizations communicate. More efficient meetings can be conducted, since access to people and information is easier, and information can be communicated to as many people as need to hear the message. The potential for higher quality decision-making is greater because the opportunity exists for greater access to needed decision-makers. Videoconferencing improves and expedites the flow of information so that an organization can respond quickly to business opportunities and customer problems. Meetings tend to be more focused, reducing extraneous talk. The time intervals that occur between information processing, decision-making and implementing action is greatly reduced, which can improve an organization’s competitive action in the market (Combs, 1990). Problem definition is easier when videoconferencing is implemented, as projects can be monitored from beginning to end. Videoconferencing enables organizations to maximize use of subject matter experts, whose talents may be required by many departments of an organization. Videoconferencing is currently being utilized by a number of institutions in Education, Healthcare and Business. The examples cited below utilize a variety of organizations and applications for videoconferencing. Education, Healthcare and Business Organizations Using Videoconferencing In 1977, the Central Maine Interactive Telecommunications System (CMITS) was started to facilitate exchange of educational information among seven health care institutions. CMITS provides motion videoconferencing with educational programming for health professionals. An emphasis was placed on planning education programs, rather than producing shows. The CMITS experience led to the establishment of the Aroostook County Telecommunications System (ACTS). The interconnection between CMITS and ACTS allows members to share educational programs within the state. The systems are also members of the Association of Hospital Television Networks, a national consortium of 30 regional television networks providing educational services to staff and patients at over 900 hospitals nationwide (Niemiec, 1980). In 1969, Dartmouth Medical School set up INTERACT, a two-way video link between two hospitals for communication between health care professionals. The system was later expanded to provide continuing education, assistance to rural physicians, and engineering courses. The system is currently being marketed to a larger user base, including businesses in surrounding communities. The network director, Bill Loftus advises other groups who might be using videoconferencing that content is the key. Expansion of network uses is the next step. The system provides another example of the adoption and usage of videoconferencing. It also demonstrates how organizations can work together to mutually benefit from the adoption and usage of videoconferencing technology (Gold, 1985, pp. 79-84). The ability of videoconferencing technology to bring together urban and rural parts of the state of Minnesota in an interactive two-way environment was key to the high rating and acceptability of videoconferencing in a pilot project at the University of Minnesota. The general reaction of participants from both the Twin Cities and Morris locations was one of enthusiasm for the potential of the technology to bring groups together over distance for matters and issues of common concern (Peltz and Kolomeychuk, 1992, p. 98). There are a number of organizations which have adopted videoconferencing and have studied the need for the technology and its usage once installed. The following businesses are examples of firms that have conducted studies either prior to or after implementation to assess the need for and effectiveness of videoconferencing. The Boeing Company, headquartered in Seattle, Washington, began using videoconferencing in 1979 in order to meet a compressed release schedule on the introduction of the 757 aircraft. A system that began as a novel solution to a specific problem has evolved into a highly productive method of doing business. In five years, over 5,900 Boeing videoconferences have been attended by more than 160,000 employees, avoiding 1.6 million travel miles in the Puget Sound area alone (Whaley, 1986, pp. 113-120). Atlantic Richfield (ARCO) began using videoconferencing in the early 1980s to allow employees to effectively communicate with one another, even though physically separated. ARCO did not know who the active users would be or what applications would be developed, and therefore, decided to conduct ongoing research regarding the adoption and usage of videoconferencing. Research was conducted by interviewing potential users before, during and after implementation and usage of videoconferencing. The â€Å"success† of videoconferencing has in large part been achieved by generating a comprehensive data base of potential users. The research program resulted in a system uniquely tailored to ARCO’s needs, and therefore, employees feel a sense of ownership and involvement in system design and evolution (Ruchinskas and Svenning, 1984, pp. 166 -173). Pratt and Whitney began using Eagle Vision II, a motion videoconferencing system, in March, 1986. The final system design reflects a combination of operational requirements established through internal research into meeting characteristics and travel patterns. Pratt and Whitney believes it was only successful because considerable time and effort were spent in understanding the requirements, applications and needs of its users before a system was developed and implemented (Truesdale, 1985, pp. 128 -139). Martin Marietta, a technology intensive corporation engaged in design, manufacture, and integration of systems and products in the aerospace, defense, electronics, and information and data management fields, tested and evaluated audiographics conferencing, still frame videoconferencing and motion videoconferencing to determine if teleconferencing was feasible to support company communications. Martin Marietta also wanted to determine what types of meetings and what level of participants would use teleconferencing. During a 90 day pilot program of motion videoconferencing, Martin Marietta conducted close to 100 conferences with approximately 75% using the standard conference room to conference room configuration. As a result of the pilot program, Martin Marietta decided to implement a motion videoconferencing system with several sites in order to improve overall corporate communications (McKinny, 1986, pp. 367 – 371). Patrick Combs of Levi Strauss states that â€Å"for videoconferencing to be successful, it must achieve widespread adoption and effective use. By allowing users to try out videoconferencing in a relaxed environment, without expectations, the videophone made the conferencing concept less intimidating, and encouraged adoption† (Combs, 1990, pp. 100). Levi Strauss trialed the use of â€Å"videophones† (inexpensive, desktop videoconferencing units that use normal dial-up phone lines and personal computers) to determine how readily users would utilize the technology if it were easy to use. The conclusion was that â€Å"videoconferencing’s successful adoption within an organization is dependent on more than just the hardware. Successful adoption also depends on how accessible the technology is to its users† (Combs, 1990, pp. 100-103). Conclusion Because a communications network assists in the interaction of individuals it can be essential to knowledge creation. These networks will facilitate an economic and social development; they are to the information age what railroads were to the industrial age. Telecommunications like videoconferencing, therefore, to play a large part in how these networks evolve, and thus will impact the creation of knowledge in the future. In the past, telecommunications policy has been primarily focused on physical infrastructure. In the information age, it has become apparent that managers and policy-makers must enlarge their focus to emphasize the information side of telecommunications. It is not the creation of the infrastructure itself that will be the major source of profitability, but rather the exploitation of the infrastructure to create knowledge.